BOTANY IN RELATION TO STUDY OF TIMBER. 45
cannot be used for structural work as it lacks the necessary
rigidity. The wood is easily bent, as crook handled ash walking
sticks testify, and is used for making hoops : the wheelwright
finds it a valuable wood. It is also largely used in the manufac-
ture of agricultural implements and sports gear. In its general
properties the wood of Wych Elm (Ulmus montana) somewhat
resembles Ash, and can be put to many similar uses, but the
timber of the Common Elm (Ulmus campestris) is totally different.
Unlike the preceding it is not straight grained, and is almost
impossible to split. The difference in properties between the
two woods is explicable if they are examined microscopically.
In Wych Elm the fibres run longitudinally, whereas in Common
Elm they pursue a much more devious course. This feature
however, adds to the toughness of the latter wood. The wood
was formerly used for wooden water-pipes, and for this purpose
has the advantage of being durable in the wet ; the fact that the
wood imparts no taste to water also made it useful for pipes,
and for similar reasons it is used for well linings. Plain sawn
elm has a beautiful figure caused by the vessels of the summer
wood, surrounded by parenchyma, being in wavy lines.
The hardwoods so far considered are ring porous. Of the
diffuse porous woods the Beech (Fagus sylvatica) is one of the most
widely used. The wood is compact and turns well ; it is much
used for furniture making, especially for chairs. The rather
small but numerous rays produce a small but prominent figure
on the radial face, and in the author's opinion Beech furniture
is very beautiful, although usually spoiled by being finished too
dark a colour. The wood is often used for making joiner's
tools ; it is the favourite wood for making planes : toys are
not infrequently made of this wood, so are shoe lasts and brush-
backs. The wood is a splendid fuel, and burns quietly and well,
giving out much heat. The Birch (Betula verrucosa and B.
pubescens) does not produce a very durable timber. Like Beech
it is extensively used in the brush trade. A great deal is used
in the manufacture of plywood, and large quantities, in this form,
are imported annually from Northern Europe. Alder (Alnus
glutinosa) is also used largely for plywood : its use for clogs
has already been mentioned, and it is from this wood that the best
gunpowder charcoal is obtained. The wood is remarkably dur-
able under water and is much used for piles. In its structure