butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus) and pendulous sedge (Carex pendula), and
pollen analysis has indicated that woodland continuity, at least locally, stretches
back to the Neolithic period (Baker, Moxey and Oxford, 1978), but for cen-
turies the essential character of the area was that of wood-pasture (Rackham,
1976), with a mosaic of woodland, grass and heath.
After a long period of decline, in 1878 the area ceased to be a Royal Forest
and the Crown's rights were officially terminated, thus ending a period in the
management history which dated back to shortly after the Norman Conquest.
The major ecological trends in the period since have been towards uniformity,
and possibly increasing disturbance. The major causes have been the cessation
of traditional woodland management (pollarding, once widespread, was finally
terminated in the parish of Loughton in 1878), the decline of grazing pressure,
the increasing urbanization of the areas adjacent to the southern part of the
Forest, plus increasing public mobility throughout. The consequences have
been the closure of the canopy in the older woodlands, the invasion of heathland
and grass by birch and thorn scrub, and an increase of public use of the Forest
throughout the year.
POPULATION CHANGES
It is against this background that changes in the bird population of the
Forest have to be considered. The characteristics of the bird-community will
reflect its exploitation of the available resources (Owen, 1974) and it is obvious
that changes in the woodland ecosystem will be reflected in the bird population.
It is, however, necessary to guard against too simplistic an approach when
considering such changes. Whilst it is true that shifts in the pattern of
vegetation will alter the availability of food supplies, nest sites and roosts, many
bird species show a wide range of tolerance and an ability to adapt to changing
conditions. It is worth remembering that many species in the British avifauna,
today well established in habitats outside woodland, were originally woodland
birds (Simms, 1971). It should also be noted that a change in the status of a
species in one locality may not be due to changes in that locality, or confined to
that locality alone. Thus Winstanley, Spencer and Williamson (1974) showed
that the decline of the Whitethroat (Sylvia communis) was related to changes in
its wintering area in Africa. With certain species, at the edge of their range,
such as the red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio), a high level of vulnerability to
subtle climatic changes may explain a fall in population, whilst with a bird such
as the rook (Corvus frugilegus) that forages outside its nesting locality the
decline may be attributed to changes beyond the immediate local area. Equally,
subtle genetic changes may explain an increase in population, as has been
indicated by Berry (1977) in the case of the spread of the collared dove
(Streptopelia decaocta). Thus a comprehensive study of the bird community of
Epping Forest must consider not only the role of the birds within the complexity
of a changing Forest ecosystem, but also within the wider context of regional
and global patterns. Such a study is not yet possible, for as Simms (1971) rightly
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